A formula used to turn ordinary data, or "plaintext," into a secret coded message known as "ciphertext." The ciphertext can reside in storage or travel over unsecure networks without its contents ...

Using a sequence of steps to solve a problem. Scientific applications, forecasting, decision making, quantum computing and AI use algorithms routinely. Computer programming is used to implement the ...

Since the very first days of computer science — a field known for its methodical approach to problem-solving — randomness has played an important role. The first program to run on the world’s first ...